Technological evolution Military history

relief of ramses ii located in abu simbel fighting @ battle of kadesh on chariot.

new weapons development can dramatically alter face of war, cost of warfare, preparations, , training of soldiers , leaders. rule of thumb if enemy has potentially war winning weapon, have either match or neutralize it.

chariots originated around 2000 bc. chariot effective, fast weapon; while 1 man controlled maneuvering of chariot, second bowman shoot arrows @ enemy soldiers. these became crucial maintenance of several governments, including new egyptian kingdom , shang dynasty , nation states of mid zhou dynasty.

some of military unit types , technologies developed in ancient world are:

slinger
hoplite
auxiliaries
infantry
archery
crossbowmen
chariots
cavalry

for settled agrarian civilizations, infantry became core of military action. infantry started opposing armed groups of soldiers underneath commanders. greeks , romans used rigid, heavily armed phalanxes. macedonians , hellenistic states adopt phalanx formations sarissa pikemen. romans later adopt more flexible maniples neighbors made them extremely successful in field of battle. kingdoms of warring states in east asia adopted infantry combat, transition chariot warfare centuries earlier.

cavalry became important tool. in sicilian expedition, led athens in attempt subdue syracuse, well-trained syracusan cavalry became crucial success of syracusans. macedonian alexander great deployed cavalry forces secure victories. in battles such battle of cannae of second punic war, , battle of carrhae of roman-persian wars, importance of cavalry repeated.

there horse archers, had ability shoot on horseback – parthians, scythians, mongols, , other various steppe people fearsome tactic. 3rd–4th century ad, heavily armored cavalry became adopted eastern roman empire, sassanids, eastern han dynasty , 3 kingdoms, etc.

even in first world war, cavalry still considered important; british mobilized 165,000 horses, austrians 600,000, germans 715,000, , russians more million.

the indo-iranians developed use of chariots in warfare. scythed chariot later invented in india , adopted persian empire.

war elephants deployed fighting in ancient warfare. first used in india , later adopted both persians , alexander great against 1 another. war elephants used in battle of hydaspes river, , hannibal in second punic war against romans.

there organizational changes, made possible better training , intercommunication. combined arms concept of using infantry, cavalry, , artillery in coordinated way.

a greek trireme

naval warfare crucial military success. navies used sailing ships without cannons; goal ram enemy ships , cause them sink. there human oar power, using slaves, built ramming speed. galleys used in 3rd millennium bc cretans. greeks later advanced these ships.

in 1210 bc, first recorded naval battle fought between suppiluliuma ii, king of hittites, , cyprus, defeated. in persian wars, navy became of increasing importance.

triremes involved in more complicated sea-land operations. themistocles helped build stronger greek navy, composed of 310 ships, , defeated persians @ battle of salamis, ending persian invasion of greece.

in first punic war, war between carthage , rome started advantage carthage because of naval experience. roman fleet built in 261 bc, addition of corvus allowed roman soldiers on board ships board enemy ships. bridge prove effective @ battle of mylae, resulting in roman victory.

the vikings, in 8th century ad, invented ship propelled oars dragon decorating prow, hence called drakkar. 12th century ad song dynasty invented ships watertight bulk head compartments while 2nd century bc han dynasty invented rudders , sculled oars warships.

fortifications important in warfare. hill-forts used protect inhabitants in iron age. primitive forts surrounded ditches filled water. forts built out of mud bricks, stones, wood, , other available materials. romans used rectangular fortresses built out of wood , stone. long there have been fortifications, there have been contraptions break in, dating times of romans , earlier. siege warfare necessary capture forts.

japanese samurai boarding mongol ships in 1281

some of military unit types , technologies used in medieval period are:

artillery
cataphract
condottieri
fyrd
rashidun
mobile guard
mamluk
janissary
knight (see also: chivalry)
crossbow
pikeman
samurai
sipahi
trebuchet

bows , arrows used combatants. egyptians shot arrows chariots effectively. crossbow developed around 500 bc in china, , used lot in middle ages. english/welsh longbow 12th century became important in middle ages. helped give english large advantage in hundred years war, though english defeated. battle of crécy , battle of agincourt excellent examples of how destroy enemy using longbow. dominated battlefields on century.

a small english civil war-era cannon

in 10th century, invention of gunpowder led many new weapons improved on time. black powder used in china since 4th century, not used weapon until 11th century. until mid-15th century, guns held in 1 hand, while explosive charge ignited other hand. came matchlock, used until around 1720s. leonardo da vinci made drawings of wheel lock made own sparks. eventually, matchlock replaced flintlock. cannons first used in europe in 14th century, , played vital role in hundred years war. first cannons welded metal bars in form of cylinder, , first cannonballs made of stone. 1346, @ battle of crécy, cannon had been used; @ battle of agincourt used again.

at beginning of 16th century, first european fire ships used. ships filled flammable materials, set on fire, , sent enemy lines. tactic used francis drake scatter spanish armada @ battle of gravelines, , later used chinese, russians, greeks, , several other countries in naval battles.

naval mines invented in 17th century, though not used in great numbers until american civil war. used heavily in first , second world wars. air-deployed naval mines used mine north vietnamese port of haiphong during vietnam war. iraqi navy of saddam hussein used naval mines extensively during tanker war, part of iran–iraq war.

the first navigable submarine built in 1624 cornelius drebbel, cruise @ depth of 15 feet (5 m). however, first military submarine constructed in 1885 isaac peral.

the turtle developed david bushnell during american revolution. robert fulton improved submarine design creating nautilus.

a 155 mm m198 howitzer firing shell.

the howitzer, type of field artillery, developed in 17th century fire high trajectory explosive shells @ targets not reached flat trajectory projectiles.

bayonets became of wide usage infantry soldiers. bayonet named after bayonne, france first manufactured in 16th century. used in infantry charges fight in hand-to-hand combat. general jean martinet introduced bayonet french army. used heavily in american civil war, , continued used in modern wars invasion of iraq.

balloons first used in warfare @ end of 18th century. first introduced in paris of 1783; first balloon traveled on 5 miles (8 km). military scouts see high points on ground, or mast of ship. high in sky, signalling troops on ground. made more difficult troop movements go unobserved.

at end of 18th century, iron-cased artillery rockets used militarily in india against british tipu sultan of kingdom of mysore during anglo-mysore wars. rockets inaccurate @ time, though william hale, in 1844, able develop better rocket. new rocket no longer needed rocket stick, , had higher accuracy.

in 1860s there series of advancements in rifles. first repeating rifle designed in 1860 company bought out winchester, made new , improved versions. springfield rifles arrived in mid-19th century also. machine guns arrived in late 19th century. automatic rifles , light machine guns first arrived @ beginning of 20th century.

in later part of 19th century, self-propelled torpedo developed. hnoms rap world s first torpedo boat.

at start of world wars, various nations had developed weapons surprise adversaries, leading need learn this, , alter how combat them. flame throwers first used in first world war. french first introduce armored car in 1902. in 1918, british produced first armored troop carrier. many tanks proof of concept impractical until further development. in world war i, british , french held crucial advantage due superiority in tanks; germans had few dozen a7v tanks, 170 captured tanks. british , french both had several hundred each. french tanks included 13 ton schneider-creusot, 75 mm gun, , british had mark iv , mark v tanks.

on december 17, 1903, wright brothers performed first controlled, powered, heavier-than-air flight; went 39 meters (120 ft). in 1907, first helicopter flew, wasn t practical usage. aviation became important in world war i, in several aces gained fame. in 1911 aircraft took off warship first time. landings on cruiser matter. led development of aircraft carrier decent unobstructed flight deck.

chemical warfare exploded public consciousness in world war may have been used in earlier wars without human attention. germans used gas-filled shells @ battle of bolimov on january 3, 1915. these not lethal, however. in april 1915, germans developed chlorine gas highly lethal, , used moderate effect @ second battle of ypres. gas masks invented in matter of weeks, , poison gas proved ineffective @ winning battles. made illegal nations in 1920s.

world war ii gave rise more technology. worth of aircraft carrier proved in battles between united states , japan battle of midway. radar independently invented allies , axis powers. used radio waves detect objects. molotov cocktails invented general franco in spanish civil war, directing nationalists use them against soviet tanks in assault on toledo. atomic bomb developed manhattan project , dropped on hiroshima , nagasaki in 1945, ending world war ii.

during cold war, main powers engaged in nuclear arms race. in space race, both nations attempted launch human beings space moon. other technological advances centered on intelligence (like spy satellite) , missiles (ballistic missiles, cruise missiles). nuclear submarine, invented in 1955. meant submarines no longer had surface often, , run more quietly. evolved becoming underwater missile platforms.