Prime Minister Ian Smith

1 prime minister

1.1 first days; banning of pcc/zapu , zanu
1.2 unilateral declaration of independence (udi)
1.3 fallout udi
1.4 tiger , fearless talks wilson
1.5 republic; failed accord douglas-home
1.6 bush war
1.7 internal settlement , lancaster house; becoming zimbabwe

prime minister
first days; banning of pcc/zapu , zanu

most of southern rhodesian press predicted smith not last long; 1 column called him momentary man , thrust spotlight rf s dearth of proven leaders. real rival replace field had been william harper, ardent segregationist had headed dominion party s southern rhodesian branch during federal years. reporters predicted welensky s imminent introduction southern rhodesian politics @ head of rf–ufp coalition government, welensky showed little interest in idea, saying unable manoeuvre in rf-dominated house. rf s replacement of field smith drew criticism british labour leader harold wilson, called brutal , while j b johnston, british high commissioner in salisbury, indicated disapproval refusing meet smith 2 weeks after took office. zapu leader joshua nkomo branded new smith cabinet suicide squad ... interested not in welfare of people in own , , predicted rf destroy . asserting lasting place white man in southern rhodesia benefit of country s people, new prime minister said government should based on merit, not on colour or nationalism , , insisted there no african nationalist government here in lifetime .

smith announced cabinet on first day in office, 14 april 1964. increased number of ministers 10 11, redistributed portfolios, , made 3 new appointments. smith s fellow former ufp men made of new rf cabinet, harper , minister of agriculture, duke of montrose (also called lord graham), heading minority of hardline dominion party veterans. ken flower, whom field had appointed director of central intelligence organisation (cio) on creation previous year, surprised retained smith. smith announced policies nation through full-page advertisements in newspapers: no forced integration. no lowering of standards. no abdication of responsible government. no repeal of land apportionment act. no appeasement suit afro-asian bloc. honest rhodesian, 1964 political poster declared— trust mr smith. never hand on rhodesia.

one of smith government s first actions crack down hard on black nationalist political violence had erupted following establishment of second black nationalist organisation, zimbabwe african national union (zanu), disgruntled zapu members in tanzania in august 1963. rival movements split tribally, zapu being ndebele , zanu predominantly shona, , politically—zapu, had relabelled people s caretaker council (pcc) within southern rhodesia circumvent ban, marxist–leninist , backed warsaw pact , allies, while zanu had aligned maoism , bloc headed communist china. respective supporters in black townships clashed constantly, targeting non-aligned blacks whom hoped recruit, , sporadically attacked whites, businesses , police stations.

amid pcc/zapu s calls various strikes , protests, including appeal black children boycott state schools, smith s justice minister clifford dupont had nkomo , other pcc/zapu leaders restricted @ gonakudzingwa in remote south-east 2 days after smith took office. politically motivated killing of white man, petrus oberholzer, near melsetter zanu insurgents on 4 july 1964 marked start of intensified black nationalist violence , police counteraction culminated in banning of zanu , pcc/zapu on 26 august, of 2 movements respective leaders concurrently jailed or restricted. zanu, zapu , respective guerrilla armies—the zimbabwe african national liberation army (zanla) , zimbabwe people s revolutionary army (zipra)—thereafter operated abroad.

unilateral declaration of independence (udi)

smith, had been uk 4 times before 1964 , never more briefly, labelled raw colonial whitehall. @ loggerheads uk government, claimed had forsaken british ideals, , commonwealth, said had abandoned own founding principles amid wind of change. accused both of isolating southern rhodesia because still respected these values. when learned in june salisbury not represented @ commonwealth prime ministers conference first time since 1932, insulted , alleged british betrayal, double standards , appeasement. 3 months later, smith accepted british condition independence terms had acceptable majority opinion, impasse developed regarding mechanism black views gauged. labour s narrow victory in october 1964 uk general election meant smith negotiating not sir alec douglas-home harold wilson, far less accommodating towards rf stand. smith declared acceptability majority opinion have been demonstrated after largely white referendum , indaba of tribal chiefs , headmen both decisively backed independence under 1961 constitution in october , november 1964, black nationalists , uk government dismissed indaba insufficiently representative of black community.

uk prime minister harold wilson, took office in october 1964, proved formidable opponent of smith.

following northern rhodesia s independence zambia in october 1964—nyasaland had been independent malawi since july—southern rhodesia began referring rhodesia, whitehall rejected change. perceiving smith on verge of unilateral declaration of independence (udi), wilson issued statement in october 1964 warning of dire economic , political consequences, , wrote smith demanding categorical assurance forthwith no udi attempted. smith ignored this, expressing confusion had done provoke it. uk , rhodesian governments exchanged confrontational correspondence on next year or so, each accusing other of being unreasonable , intransigent. little progress made when 2 prime ministers met in person in january 1965, when smith travelled london sir winston churchill s funeral. rf called fresh election may 1965 and, campaigning on election promise of independence, won 50 -roll seats (elected whites). wilson s ministers deliberately stonewalled smith during mid-1965, hoping break him down, caused rhodesian hierarchy feel yet more alienated. june, peripheral dispute concerned rhodesia s unilateral , successful attempt open independent mission in lisbon; portugal s acceptance of in september 1965 prompted british outrage , rhodesian delight.

amid rumours udi imminent, smith arrived in london declared intent of settling independence issue on 4 october 1965, flew home 8 days later matter unresolved. when wilson travelled salisbury on 26 october, smith offered enfranchise half million black rhodesians along lines of 1 taxpayer, 1 vote in return independence, wilson said unacceptable blacks still excluded. proposed royal commission test public opinion in rhodesia regarding independence under 1961 constitution, , suggested uk might safeguard black representation in rhodesian parliament withdrawing relevant devolved powers. latter prospect horrified smith s team seemed them have ruled out failsafe option of keeping status quo. after wilson returned britain on 30 october 1965, presented terms royal commission rhodesians found unacceptable—among other things, britain not commit accepting results. smith rejected these conditions on 5 november, saying made whole exercise pointless. after waiting few days new terms wilson, smith made consensus decision cabinet break ties unilaterally on 11 november 1965, , signed unilateral declaration of independence @ 11:00 local time.

fallout udi

udi, while received calmly rhodesians, prompted political outrage in britain , overseas. astonished wilson, called on people of rhodesia ignore post-udi government, described hell-bent on illegal self-destroying . following orders whitehall, colonial governor sir humphrey gibbs formally sacked smith , cabinet, accusing them of treason. smith , ministers ignored this, considering gibbs s office obsolete under 1965 constitution enacted part of udi. after gibbs made clear not resign, smith s government replaced him dupont, appointed post of officer administering government (created 1965 constitution). no attempt made remove gibbs official residence @ government house, however; remained there, ignored smith administration, until declaration of republic in 1970.

the un general assembly , security council joined britain in condemning udi illegal , racist. security council resolutions 216 , 217, adopted in days following smith s declaration, denounced udi illegitimate usurpation of power racist settler minority , , called on nations not entertain diplomatic or economic relations. no country recognised rhodesia independent. black nationalists in rhodesia , overseas backers, prominently organisation of african unity (oau), clamoured uk remove smith s government military invasion, britain dismissed option, citing logistical issues, risk of provoking pre-emptive rhodesian strike on zambia, , psychological issues accompany confrontation between british , rhodesian troops. wilson instead resolved end udi through economic sanctions, banning supply of oil rhodesia , import of rhodesian goods britain. when smith continued receive oil through south africa , portuguese mozambique, wilson posted royal navy squadron mozambique channel in march 1966. blockade, beira patrol, endorsed un security council resolution 221 following month.

wilson predicted in january 1966 various boycotts force smith give in within matter of weeks rather months , british (and later un) sanctions had little effect on rhodesia, largely because south africa , portugal went on trading it, providing oil , other key resources. clandestine trade other nations continued, @ reduced level, , diminished presence of foreign competitors helped domestic industries mature , expand. many oau states, while bombarding rhodesia opprobrium, continued importing rhodesian food , other products. rhodesia avoided economic cataclysm predicted wilson , gradually became more self-sufficient. rhodesia can not take it, can make it, smith said on 29 april 1966, while opening annual central african trade fair in bulawayo. when take it, use in 2 ways. firstly, when comes sanctions have proved can take it. secondly, when comes independence, have proved can take it.

tiger , fearless talks wilson

gibraltar, venue talks between smith , wilson in 1966 , 1968

wilson told british house of commons in january 1966 not enter kind of dialogue smith s post-udi government (which called illegal regime ) until gave claim of independence, mid-1966 british , rhodesian civil servants holding talks talks in london , salisbury. november year, wilson had agreed negotiate smith. smith , wilson subsequently held 2 rounds of direct negotiations, both of held aboard royal navy ships off gibraltar. first took place aboard hms tiger between 2 , 4 december 1966, while second, aboard hms fearless, held between 8 , 13 october 1968.

the british prime minister went hms tiger in belligerent mindset. wilson s political secretary marcia falkender later wrote of apartheid ... on ship , british , rhodesian delegations separated in activities outside conference room @ wilson s orders. despite uneasy atmosphere—accounts both sides describe wilson dealing rhodesians extremely tersely—talks progressed relatively smoothly until subject turned manner of transition. wilson insisted on abandonment of 1965 constitution, dissolution of post-udi government in favour of broad-based multiracial interim administration , period under british governor, conditions smith saw tantamount surrender, particularly british proposed draft , introduce new constitution after fresh test of opinion under uk control. when smith asserted on 3 december not settle without first consulting cabinet in salisbury, wilson enraged, declaring central condition of summit had been , smith have plenipotentiary powers make deal. according j r t wood, wilson , attorney general sir elwyn jones bullied smith 2 long days try him settle, without success.

a working document produced , signed smith, wilson , gibbs, accepted or rejected in entirety each cabinet after prime ministers returned home. whitehall accepted proposals, salisbury turned them down; smith announced on 5 december 1966 while , ministers largely satisfied terms, cabinet did not feel responsibly abandon 1965 constitution while uncertainty surrounded transition , new mythical constitution yet evolved . gondo, rhodesia s leader of opposition, promptly demanded smith s resignation, reasoning cabinet s rejection of working document had helped draft amounted vote of no confidence. rf ignored him. warning grave actions must follow , wilson took rhodesia problem united nations, proceeded institute first mandatory trade sanctions in history security council resolutions 232 (december 1966) , 253 (april 1968). these measures required un member states prevent trade , economic links rhodesia.

hms fearless, royal navy ship hosted 1968 anglo-rhodesian summit off gibraltar

state press censorship, introduced smith administration on udi, lifted in april 1968, though according glasgow herald government retained considerable powers control information. may reflect no more mr smith s growing confidence nothing—short of sell-out britain—can undermine position in rhodesia . series of rhodesian high court cases debating legality of udi came close 5 months later on 13 september. panel of judges headed sir hugh beadle ruled udi, 1965 constitution , smith s government de jure, prompting uk commonwealth secretary george thomson accuse them of breaching fundamental laws of land .

on hms fearless, british reversed confrontational approach of tiger talks , made marked effort appear genial , welcoming, mixing socially rhodesians , accommodating smith in admiral s cabin on hms kent, moored alongside. marked progress towards agreement made—for example, wilson dropped altogether transition period under colonial governor—but rhodesian delegation demurred on new british proposal, double safeguard . involve elected black rhodesians controlling blocking quarter in rhodesian parliament, , thereafter having right appeal passed legislation privy council in london. smith s team accepted principle of blocking quarter agreement not reached on technicalities of it; involvement of uk privy council rejected smith ridiculous provision prejudice rhodesia s sovereignty. fearless summit ended joint anglo-rhodesian statement asserting both sides recognise wide gulf still remains , prepared continue negotiations in salisbury. never occurred.

a republic; failed accord douglas-home

with hopes of commonwealth realm status through settlement britain dimming, smith , rf began consider alternative of republic december 1966, after tiger talks. republicanism presented means clarify rhodesia s claimed constitutional status, end ambiguity regarding ties britain , elicit official foreign recognition , acceptance. smith s government began exploring republican constitution in march 1967. union jack , rhodesia s commonwealth-style national flag—a defaced sky blue ensign union jack in canton—were formally superseded on 11 november 1968, third anniversary of udi, new national flag: green-white-green vertical triband, charged centrally rhodesian coat of arms. after electorate voted yes in june 1969 referendum both new constitution , abandoning of symbolic ties crown, smith declared rhodesia republic on 2 march 1970. 1969 constitution introduced president head of state, multiracial senate, separate black , white electoral rolls (each qualifications) , mechanism whereby number of black mps increase in line proportion of income tax revenues paid black citizens. process stop once blacks had same number of seats whites; declared goal not majority rule, rather parity between races .

british foreign secretary sir alec douglas-home, whom smith signed short-lived accord in 1971.

no country recognised rhodesian republic. rf decisively returned power in first election held republic, on 10 april 1970, winning 50 white seats. hopes anglo-rhodesian rapprochement boosted 2 months later when conservatives won surprise election victory in uk. edward heath took on prime minister while douglas-home became foreign secretary. talks between douglas-home , smith began lengthy meeting in salisbury in april 1971 , continued until tentative understanding reached in november. uk delegation headed douglas-home , attorney general sir peter rawlinson flew salisbury on 15 november negotiations on new constitution, , after 6 days of discussion accord signed on 21 november 1971.

the constitution agreed upon based largely on 1 rhodesia had adopted, bring black majority in parliament. black representation in house increased, , majority of both black , white mps have approve retrogressive legislation; blacks wield effective veto long voted solidly , robert blake comments. principle of majority rule enshrined safeguards ensuring there no legislation impede this, smith wrote in memoirs. on other hand, there no mad rush 1 man, 1 vote resultant corruption, nepotism, chaos , economic disaster had witnessed in countries around us.

the uk announced test of opinion in rhodesia undertaken four-man commission headed veteran judge lord pearce. 4 population groups—black, white, coloured (mixed) , asian—would have approve terms britain proceed. zanu , zapu supporters formed african national council (later united african national council, or uanc) organise , co-ordinate black opposition deal. bishop abel muzorewa, first black man have been ordained such in rhodesia, installed movement s leader. pearce commission finished work on 12 march 1972 , published report 2 months later—it described white, coloured , asian rhodesians in favour of terms 98%, 97% , 96% respectively, , black citizens against them unspecified large majority. came great shock white community , deep disappointment in britain hoped rid of tiresome albatross , blake records. smith condemned pearce commissioners naive , inept . uk withdrew negotiations, neither government abandoned accord entirely. ask them [the black people of rhodesia] again @ rejected, douglas-home told house of commons; proposals still available because mr smith has not withdrawn or modified them.

bush war


rhodesian army soldiers on lake kariba in 1976, during bush war

the rhodesian bush war (or second chimurenga), had been underway @ low level since before udi, began in earnest in december 1972 when zanla attacked farms in north-eastern rhodesia. rhodesian security forces mounted strong counter-campaign on next 2 years. muzorewa re-engaged smith in august 1973, accepting 1971–72 douglas-home terms, , 2 signed statement effect on 17 august. uanc executive repudiated in may 1974, talks between smith , muzorewa continued sporadically. rf again won clean sweep of 50 white seats in july 1974 general election.

rhodesia s counter-insurgency successes undone political shifts in guerrillas favour overseas. april 1974 carnation revolution in lisbon led mozambique s transformation on next year portuguese territory friendly smith s government communist state openly allied zanu. wilson , labour returned power in britain in march 1974. portugal s withdrawal made rhodesia hugely dependent on south africa, smith still insisted held strong position. if takes 1 year, 5 years, ten years, re prepared ride out, told rf congress on 20 september 1974. our stand clear , unambiguous. settlement desirable, on our terms.

the geopolitical situation tilted further against smith in december 1974 when south african prime minister b j vorster pressured him accepting détente initiative involving frontline states of zambia, tanzania , botswana (mozambique , angola join following year). vorster had concluded rhodesia s position untenable , south african interests better served collaborating black african governments on rhodesian settlement; hoped success in might win south africa international legitimacy , allow retain apartheid. détente forced ceasefire, giving guerrillas time regroup, , required rhodesians release zanu , zapu leaders attend conference in rhodesia, united under uanc banner , led muzorewa. when rhodesia stopped releasing black nationalist prisoners on grounds zanla , zipra not observing ceasefire, vorster harried smith further withdrawing south african police, had been helping rhodesians patrol countryside. smith remained stubborn, saying in run-up conference have no policy in rhodesia hand on black majority government , government instead favoured qualified franchise rhodesians ... [to] ensure government retained in responsible hands times .

joshua nkomo, leader of zapu, 1 of main black nationalist parties in rhodesia

nkomo remained unchallenged @ head of zapu, zanu leadership had become contested between founding president, reverend ndabaningi sithole, , robert mugabe, former teacher mashonaland had won internal election in prison. when released in december 1974 under détente terms, mugabe went mozambique consolidate leadership of guerrillas, while sithole joined muzorewa s delegation. had been agreed talks take place within rhodesia, black nationalists refused meet on ground perceived not neutral. rhodesians insisted on abiding accord , negotiating inside country. please both camps conference held on train halfway across victoria falls bridge on border between rhodesia , zambia; delegations sat on opposite sides of frontier. conference, took place on 26 august 1975 kaunda , vorster mediators, failed produce settlement; each side accused other of being unreasonable. smith afterwards held direct talks nkomo , zapu in salisbury, these led nowhere; nkomo proposed immediate transition interim government headed himself, smith rejected. guerrilla incursions picked in first months of 1976.

on 20 march 1976, smith gave televised speech including became quoted utterance. don t believe in majority rule ever in rhodesia—not in 1,000 years, said. repeat believe in blacks , whites working together. if 1 day white , next day black, believe have failed , disaster rhodesia. first sentence of statement became commonly quoted evidence smith crude racist never compromise black nationalists, though speech 1 in smith had said power-sharing black rhodesians inevitable , have got accept in future rhodesia country black , white, not white opposed black , vice versa . not in 1,000 years comment was, according peter godwin, attempt reassure rf s right wing, opposed transition whatsoever, white rhodesians not sold out. in 1978 biography of smith, berlyn comments regardless of whether statement taken out of context, or whether actual intent misinterpreted , 1 of greatest blunders prime minister gave obvious ammunition detractors.

henry kissinger, secretary of state, instrumental in smith s public acceptance in 1976 of principle of majority rule.

henry kissinger, secretary of state, announced formal interest in rhodesian situation in february 1976, , on next half-year held discussions britain, south africa , frontline states in became anglo-american initiative . meeting smith in pretoria on 18 september 1976, kissinger proposed majority rule after transition period of 2 years. according smith, kissinger told him considered participation in demise of rhodesia 1 of great tragedies of life . encouraged smith accept deal, though knew unpalatable him, future offer worse smith s standpoint—especially if, expected, president gerald ford lost upcoming election jimmy carter. smith expressed great reluctance, agreed on 24 september after vorster intimated south africa might cut off financial , military aid if refused. first time smith had publicly accepted principles of unconditional majority rule , 1 man, 1 vote. however, frontline states abruptly revised stance , turned kissinger terms down, saying transition period unacceptable. britain arranged all-party conference in geneva, switzerland try salvage solution. zanu , zapu announced attend , summit thereafter joint patriotic front (pf), including members of both parties under combined leadership. geneva conference, held between october , december 1976 under british mediation, failed.

internal settlement , lancaster house; becoming zimbabwe

smith s moves towards settlement black nationalist groups prompted outrage in sections of rhodesian front s right wing, remained unassailable within party whole, had in late 1975 granted him mandate negotiate best possible settlement saw fit. split in party led defection in july 1977 of 12 rf mps after smith introduced legislation remove racial criteria land tenure act. loss of these seats breakaway rhodesian action party, opposed conciliation black nationalists, meant smith barely had two-thirds majority in parliament need change constitution, have in event of settlement. therefore called election, , on 31 august 1977 roundly defeated defectors— dirty dozen , rf called them—as other opposition; third time in 7 years, rf had won 50 white seats. party revolt turned out blessing in disguise smith, berlyn comments, allowed him shed dead wood of right wing , giving him more freedom in negotiations nationalists. need settlement becoming urgent—the war escalating sharply, white emigration climbing , economy starting struggle un sanctions began have serious effect.

bishop abel muzorewa, country s first black prime minister, succeeded smith in june 1979 following internal settlement

in march 1978, smith , non-militant nationalist groups headed muzorewa, sithole , chief jeremiah chirau agreed became internal settlement , under country reconstituted zimbabwe rhodesia in june 1979 after multiracial elections. zanu , zapu invited participate, refused; nkomo sardonically dubbed smith s black colleagues blacksmiths . deal badly received abroad, partly because kept police, military, judiciary , civil service in white hands. there senate of 20 blacks , 10 whites, , whites reserved 28 out of 100 seats in new house of assembly. smith , nkomo re-entered negotiations in august 1978, these ended after zipra shot down air rhodesia passenger flight on 3 september , massacred survivors @ crash site. smith cut off talks, introduced martial law across of country , ordered reprisal attacks on guerrilla positions. smith, muzorewa , sithole toured in october 1978 promote settlement, , met kissinger, ford , others including future president ronald reagan. on 11 december, zanla attacked salisbury s oil storage depot, causing fire lasted 6 days , destroyed quarter of rhodesia s fuel. 2 months later zipra downed civilian flight, time killing on board.

after whites endorsed internal settlement 85% in referendum on 30 january 1979, smith dissolved rhodesian parliament last time on 28 february. rf won white seats in april 1979 elections while muzorewa , uanc won majority in common roll seats 67% of popular vote; pf rejected this, however, did un, passed resolution branding sham . sithole, astounded party had won 12 seats uanc s 51, turned against settlement , alleged polls had been stage-managed in muzorewa s favour. mugabe dismissed bishop neocolonial puppet , pledged continue zanla s campaign last man ; nkomo committed zipra. on 1 june 1979, day of country s official reconstitution zimbabwe rhodesia, muzorewa replaced smith prime minister, @ head of uanc–rf coalition cabinet made of 12 blacks , 5 whites. smith included minister without portfolio; nkomo promptly dubbed him minister portfolios .

an observer group uk conservative party did regard april 1979 elections fair, , margaret thatcher, conservative leader, disposed recognise muzorewa s government , lift sanctions. potential significance of conservative victory in may 1979 british general election not lost on smith, wrote thatcher: rhodesians thank god magnificent victory. senate passed resolution urging president carter remove sanctions , declare zimbabwe rhodesia legitimate, carter , cabinet remained opposed. carter , thatcher decided against accepting zimbabwe rhodesia, noting continued international support guerrillas. after commonwealth heads of government meeting in lusaka in august 1979, uk foreign secretary lord carrington invited zimbabwe rhodesian government , patriotic front attend all-party constitutional conference @ lancaster house in london, starting on 10 september.

smith part of muzorewa s delegation @ lancaster house. several aspects of internal settlement constitution, such declaration of human rights , guarantee land redistributed government paid for, retained; agreed have 20 reserved white seats out of 100 @ least 7 years. fresh elections held during brief period under british governor invested full executive , legislative powers. new constitution agreed on 18 october, , on 12 december 1979 house of assembly voted dissolve itself, ending udi. lord soames arrived in salisbury later same day become southern rhodesia s last governor; among other things announced smith granted amnesty declaring independence. final lancaster house agreement signed on 21 december. smith member of delegation openly oppose accords; refused attend signing ceremony , boycotted post-agreement party, instead having dinner former raf comrades , group captain sir douglas bader.

the uk government , international community declared february 1980 general election free , fair, though many observers attested widespread political violence , intimidation of voters, particularly zanu (which added patriotic front name become zanu–pf ). british monitors in zanu–pf-dominated eastern provinces critical, reporting brutal disciplinary murders examples of fate awaiting failed conform , name-taking , claims possession of machines reveal how individuals had voted . commonwealth observer group acknowledged irregularities occurring ruled accounts exaggerated. after rf won 20 white seats, soames announced late on 4 march 1980 mugabe , zanu–pf had won 57 of 80 common roll seats, giving them majority in new house of assembly. mugabe invited smith house evening , according smith treated him courteously ; mugabe expressed joy @ inheriting wonderful country modern infrastructure , viable economy, outlined plans gradual reform smith found reasonable, , said hoped stay in regular contact. meeting had profound effect on former prime minister. having denounced mugabe apostle of satan before election, smith publicly endorsed him sober , responsible . if true picture, there hope instead of despair, recalled in autobiography. when got home said janet hoped not hallucination.

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