Polonization in Eastern Borderlands (Kresy) Polonization

1 polonization in eastern borderlands (kresy)

1.1 west belarus

1.1.1 resistance polonization in west belarus


1.2 west ukraine
1.3 lithuanian lands

polonization in eastern borderlands (kresy)

language of instruction in interwar polish schools , percent of population listing particular language mother tongue , claimed official polish statistics 1937 , 1938

the territories of western belarus, western ukraine , vilnius region, incorporated interwar poland in 1921 @ treaty of riga in polish eastern frontiers had been first defined following polish–soviet war of 1919–1921. @ same time, government of new polish state, pressure allies agreed grant political autonomy galicia, not volhynia.

west belarus

the treaty of riga signed between sovereign poland , soviet russia representing soviet ukraine without participation belarusian side assigned half of modern-day belarus (the western half of soviet belarus) polish second republic. government of russian soviet federative socialist republic according text of riga treaty acting on behalf of byelorussian soviet socialist republic formed in course of war. additionally, in accordance treaty, soviet russia received 3 regions newly formed soviet belarus, reassigned bolsheviks in 1924 , 1926. protests exiled government of belarusian democratic republic proclaimed in 1918 ignored poland , soviets.

according per anders rudling, belarusian language pushed out of schools in polish west belarus in violation of minorities treaty between poland , western powers of 1919. polish author marek wierzbicki brings in connection fact first textbook of belarusian grammar written no earlier 1918.

following intentions of majority of polish society, polish government introduced harsh policies of polonization , assimilation of belarusians in west belarus. polish official leopold skulski, advocate of polonization policies, being quoted saying in sejm in late 1930s: assure in ten years won t able find single [ethnic] belarusian [in west belarus] .

władysław studnicki, influential polish official @ administration of kresy region, openly stated poland needed eastern regions object colonization.

there widespread cases of discrimination of belarusian language, forbidden usage in state institutions.

orthodox christians faced discrimination in interwar poland. discrimination targeting assimilation of eastern orthodox belarusians. polish authorities imposing polish language in orthodox church services , ceremonies, initiated creation of polish orthodox societies in various parts of west belarus (slonim, bielastok, vaŭkavysk, navahrudak).

belarusian roman catholic priests fr. vincent hadleŭski promoted belarusian language in church , belarusian national awareness under serious pressure polish regime , leadership of catholic church in poland. polish catholic church issued documents priests prohibiting usage of belarusian language rather polish language in churches , catholic sunday schools in west belarus. 1921 warsaw-published instruction of polish catholic church criticized priests introducing belarusian language in religious life: “they want switch rich polish language language people call simple , shabby”.

before 1921, there 514 belarusian language schools in west belarus. in 1928, there 69 schools 3% of existing schools in west belarus @ moment. of them phased out polish educational authorities 1939. polish officials openly prevented creation of belarusian schools , imposing polish language in school education in west belarus. polish officials treated belarusian demanding schooling in belarusian language soviet spy , belarusian social activity product of communist plot.

the belarusian civil society resisted polonization , mass closure of belarusian schools. belarusian schools society (belarusian: Таварыства беларускай школы), led branisłaŭ taraškievič , other activists, main organization promoting education in belarusian language in west belarus in 1921–1937.

resistance polonization in west belarus

compared (larger) ukrainian minority living in poland, belarusians less politically aware , active. nevertheless, according belarusian historians, policies polish government against population of west belarus increasingly provoked protests , armed resistance. in 1920s, belarusian partisan units arose in many areas of west belarus, unorganized led activists of belarusian left wing parties. in spring of 1922, several thousands belarusian partisans issued demand polish government stop violence, liberate political prisoners , grant autonomy west belarus. protests held in various regions of west belarus until mid 1930s.

the largest belarusian political organization, belarusian peasants , workers union (or, hramada), demanded stop polonization , autonomy west belarus, grew more radicalized time. received logistical soviet union, , financial aid comintern. 1927 hramada controlled entirely agents moscow. banned polish authorities, , further opposition polish government met state-imposed sanctions once connection between hramada , more radical pro-soviet communist party of western belarus discovered. polish policy met armed resistance.

west ukraine

decree of first governor of wołyń (volhynia), jan krzakowski: on language in volhynian province , establishing polish official language in accordance 1921 treaty of riga after polish–soviet war in frontiers between poland , soviet russia had been defined. written in ukrainian

territories of galicia , volhynia had different backgrounds, different recent histories , different dominant religions. until first world war, galicia large ukrainian greek catholic population in east (around lwów), , polish roman catholics in west (around kraków), controlled austrian empire. on other hand, ukrainians of volhynia, formerly of russian empire (around równe), largely orthodox religion, , influenced strong russophile trends. both polish officials , ukrainian activists alike, distinguished between galician , volhynian ukrainians in political aims. there stronger national self-perception among galician ukrainians increasingly influenced oun ( ukrainian nationalists ). while ukrainian greek catholic church (ugcc), functioned in communion latin rite catholicism, have hoped receive better treatment in poland leadership saw catholicism 1 of main tools unify nation – poles under stanisław grabski saw restless galician ukrainians less reliable orthodox volhynian ukrainians, seen better candidates gradual assimilation. s why polish policy in ukraine aimed @ keeping greek catholic galicians further influencing orthodox volhynians drawing so-called sokalski line .

due region s history ukrainian greek catholic church attained strong ukrainian national character, , polish authorities sought weaken in various ways. in 1924, following visit ukrainian catholic believers in north america , western europe, head of ugcc denied reentry lviv considerable amount of time. polish priests led bishops began undertake missionary work among eastern rite faithful, , administrative restrictions placed on ukrainian greek catholic church.

with respect orthodox ukrainian population in eastern poland, polish government issued decree defending rights of orthodox minorities. in practice, failed, catholics, eager strengthen position, had official representation in sejm , courts. accusation strong enough particular church confiscated , handed on roman catholic church. goal of 2 called revindication campaigns deprive orthodox of churches had been greek catholic before orthodoxy imposed tsarist russian government. 190 orthodox churches destroyed, of destroyed churches abandoned, , 150 more forcibly transformed roman catholic (not greek catholic) churches. such actions condemned head of ukrainian greek catholic church, metropolitan andrei sheptytsky, claimed these acts destroy in souls of our non-united orthodox brothers thought of possible reunion.

the land reform designed favour poles in volhynia, land question severe, , brought alienation polish state of orthodox volhynian population tended less radical greek catholic galicians.

lithuanian lands

during interwar period of 20th century (1920–1939), lithuanian–polish relations characterized mutual enmity. consequence of conflict on city of vilnius, , polish–lithuanian war, both governments – in era of nationalism sweeping through europe – treated respective minorities harshly. in 1920, after staged mutiny of lucjan Żeligowski, lithuanian cultural activities in polish controlled territories limited , closure of lithuanian newspapers , arrest of editors occurred. 1 of them – mykolas biržiška accused of state treason , sentenced death penalty , direct intervention league of nations saved him being executed. 1 of 32 lithuanian , belarusian cultural activists formally expelled vilnius on 20 september 1922 , deported lithuania. in 1927, tensions between lithuania , poland increased, 48 additional lithuanian schools closed , 11 lithuanian activists deported. following piłsudski s death in 1935, lithuanian minority in poland again became object of polonization policies greater intensity. 266 lithuanian schools closed after 1936 , lithuanian organizations banned. further polonization ensued government encouraged settlement of polish army veterans in disputed regions. 400 lithuanian reading rooms , libraries closed in poland between 1936 , 1938. following 1938 polish ultimatum lithuania, lithuania re-established diplomatic relations poland , efforts polonize lithuanians living in poland decreased somewhat.